Theoretical+Perspectives+on+Elearning

What is a theory? We often use the word in casual conversation to mean a number of things but in [|scholarly language] it has a very specific mean and must be considered distinctly from similar and related terms like concept, hypothesis, model, framework, and paradigm. When scholars use the word //theory// it has a different meaning from the normal everyday use. A theory is not a guess or a hunch but a well substantiated, well-supported, well documented explanation for observations of behavior. A theory forms the basis for predictions about future behavior. A theory cannot be proved but it can be disproved. A theory is always subject to revision and updating depending on current and future testing and hypotheses. We can never say something is definitely true in science because there is always the off chance that it will eventually be proven to be wrong at some point in time. However, this does not invalidate a current theory. Until that theory has been discounted and proven false, it is still the best and most viable option to a problem that we have at the moment!

Why is it so important to develop the capacity to use theories? [|Nichols (2003)]frames the issue very eloquently:

If literature is likened to a ‘tree of knowledge’ about a particular subject the dire need for more eLearning theory becomes clear. Practice based research can be likened to the branches of the tree, those parts that are readily visible and most easily appreciated. Theoretical principles can be likened to the roots; they do not provide any practical things for people like shade or fruit and neither are they aesthetically pleasing. However it is the root system that determines the health of the tree and also the extent to which it can grow. Unless attention is given to eLearning theory, the branches cannot stretch out for fear of toppling the entire structure. Unless attention is given to eLearning theory, eLearning practice cannot develop fully. Without further debate and development in the theoretical underpinnings, we will be left with bonsai eLearning

"Four conditions are basic to grounded design: (1) designs must be rooted in a defensible theoretical framework; (2) methods must be consistent with research conduced to test, validate, or extend the theories on which they are based; (3)designs must be generalizable to situations beyond the unique conditions in which they are being utilized; and  (4) grounded designs and their frameworks must be validated through successive implementation (Hannifin et al. 1997).  Application of the three-level framework grounds the design of online and hybrid learning interactions on theories of human learning. It also helps ensure that the design of training is driving the use of technology, rather than vice versa" (Hirumi, 2012)

Hirumi, A. (2012). The design and sequencing of online and blended learning interactions: A framework for grounded design. //Canadian Learning Journal//, //16//(2), 21–25.

Andrews, R. (2011). Does e-learning require a new theory of learning? Some initial thoughts. //Journal for Educational Research Online//, //3//(1), 104–121.http://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2011/4684/pdf/JERO_2011_1_Andrews_Does_e_learning_require_a_new_theory_S104_D_A.pdf

Emergent Learning Williams, R., Karousou, R., & Mackness, J. (2011). Emergent learning and learning ecologies in Web 2.0. //International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning//, //12//(3). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/883 This article is a model of academic work with a theory building agenda. It lays out an excellent framework for understanding the differences between prescriptive learning and and emergent learning. The diagram below is reproduced from the article.




 * Prescriptive Theories**


 * Emergent Theories**


 * Theories of Mobile Learning**

Game Theory

Traditional and General Theories of Learning

__


 * Other resources in no particular order**


 * Scholars are working diligently on the theories and research related to online learning. Means et al. ( 2009) is a very comprehensive analysis of the early research.**

Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2009). //Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies// (Project report). Southampton, UK: Center for Learning Technology, University of Southampton. Retrieved from http://repository.alt.ac.uk/629/



Moore, J. L., Dickson-Deane, C., & Galyen, K. (2010). e-Learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: Are they the same? //Internet and Higher Education//, //14//(Oct), 129–135. https://scholar.vt.edu/access/content/group/5deb92b5-10f3-49db-adeb-7294847f1ebc/e-Learning%20Scott%20Midkiff.pdf

Haythornthwaite, C., Andrews, R., Kazmer, M. M., Bruce, B. C., Montague, R.-A., & Preston, C. (2007). Theories and models of and for online learning. //First Monday//, //12//(8), 1–30. Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/1976

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. //Performance Improvement Quarterly//, //26//(2), 43–71. doi:10.1002/piq.21143

Exploring socio-technical theories of learning technology - 2010 Conference proceedings. http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/organisations/netlc/past/nlc2010/abstracts/Creanor.html

Information Systems Theories http://istheory.byu.edu/wiki/Main_Page

Potvin, B. L. (2012). Don’t waste your time teaching in an on-line environment. //Research in Higher Education Journal//, //17//, 1–29.

Lapsley, R., Kulik, B., Moody, R., & Arbaugh, B. (2008). Is identical really identical? An investigation of Equivalency Theory and online learning. //Journal of Educators Online//, //5//(1). Retrieved from http://www.thejeo.com/Archives/Volume5Number1/LapsleyetalPaper.pdf

Carvalho, A. A., & Moreira, A. (2010). Criss-crossing Cognitive Flexibility Theory based research in Portugal: an overview. //Digital Education Review//, (11), 1–26.

Alhadeff-Jones, M. (2008). Three Generations of Complexity Theories: Nuances and ambiguities. // Educational Philosophy and Theory //, // 40 // (1), 66–82. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00411.x

Por, G. (2010). Towards a federated framework for self-evolving educational experience design on massive scale (SEED-M). In //Knowledge Federation//. Retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-822/GP.pdf

[|Pedagogy on Wikipedia]

[|Center for Cognitive Technology Collection of papers]

Bloom, B. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective one-to-one tutoring. //Educational Researcher//, //13//(6), 4–16. Retrieved from[| http://personal.crocodoc.com/UYJ2oAO]

[|Theories of Learning from an Educational Psychology perspective]

Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning. ( this is the foundational theory for NCU's model of instructional design)



[|Education Theorists]

[|More Educational Theorists]

[|Even more Educational Theorists]

[|Boise State Collection of Theories of Education Technology.]

[|Donald Clarke Blog on Learning theorists]

[|Theories of Psychology]

Ally, M. (2004). Foundations of educational theory for online learning. //Theory and Practice of Online Learning//. Athabasca University Press. Retrieved from[| http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/ch1.html]

Hrastinski, S. (2009). A theory of online learning as online participation. //Computers & Education//, //52//(1), 78–82. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.009 Cicciarelli, M. (2007). Behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic theories: Which theories do online instructors utilize? International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 3(4), 1-1-12. Retrieved from []

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. //Educational Psychologist//, //41//(2). Retrieved from http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/kirschner_Sweller_Clark.pdf

Federman, M. L. (2010). //From BAH to ba: Valence Theory and the future of Organization// (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Toronto, Toronto, ON. Retrieved from []

Mayer, R. E. (2009). //Multimedia Learning// (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Follow this link to Mayer's wiki with Chapters and chapter notes. http://visuallearningresearch.wiki.educ.msu.edu/Mayer,+R.++2009++Multimedia+Learning++Second+Edition.+New+York++Cambridge+University+Press


 * Empirical research into Multimedia theory and with references to Cognitive load theory.**

Sombatteera, S., & Kalyuga, S. (2012). When dual Sensory mode with limited text presentation enhance learning. //Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences//, //69//, 2022–2026. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.160

Laurillard, D. (2009). The pedagogical challenges to collaborative technologies. //International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning//, //4//(1), 5–20. doi:10.1007/s11412-008-9056-2

Diana Laurillard developed an earlier framework for teaching and learning that has come to be called Laruillard's Conversational Framework. In the above article Laurillard re-assesses her framework in the context of online learning and examines theoretical foundations.

Quantum Perspective of Learning http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1038/2024

Sawyer, K. (Ed.). (2006). //The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences//. Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1172372/?site_locale=en_GB

Anthony Giddens, Structuration Theory http://www.theory.org.uk/giddens2.htm

Uses and Gratifications Theory http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_and_gratifications_theory

Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the Mix Right Again: An Updated and Theoretical Rationale for Interaction. //The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning//, //4//(2). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/149 Interaction Equivalency theory.

Miyazoe, T., & Anderson Terry. (2010). The interaction equivalency theorem. //Journal of Interactive Online Learning//, //9//(2). Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org/**jiol/issues/pdf/9.2.1.pdf**


 * Control-value theory introduced by Pekrun has be adapted for online learning settings.**

Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. //Educational Psychology Review//, //18//(4), 315–341.


 * The journal //Internet and Higher Education// dedicated a special edition to this theory. (2012 Volume 15, Issue 3). The Artino article cited below introduces the special edition and the efforts of educational researchers attempting to understand the role of emotions in online learning environments.**

Artino Jr., A. R. (2012). Emotions in online learning environments: Introduction to the special issue. //The Internet and Higher Education//, //15//(3), 137–140. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.04.001Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1096751612000255


 * Another notable article from the same edition is**

Daniels, L. M., & Stupnisky, R. H. (2012). Not that different in theory: Discussing the control-value theory of emotions in online learning environments. //The Internet and Higher Education 15(3) 222-226//. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1096751612000255


 * Systems Theory**

Zotero Group with resources respecting e-learning theory. http://www.zotero.org/groups/38572


 * Pedagogical patterns**

Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011, March 25). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. Text.Serial.Journal,. Retrieved June 11, 2011, from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/890



Theoretical frameworks for examining the issue of digital divide. What theoretical perspectives specific to elearning can be used to examine the issue of digital divide?

Economic theories

Hsieh, J. J. P.-A., Rai, A., & Keil, M. (2008). Understanding digital inequality: comparing continued use behavioral models of the socio-economically advantaged and disadvantaged. //MIS Q.//, //32//(1), 97–126.

Critical race theory;

Patti, L. (2012). Rethinking race and digital divides. //Reviews in Cultural Theory//, //3//(2). Retrieved from http://www.reviewsinculture.com/?r=94

Or some other combination

Choo, H. Y., & Ferree, M. M. (2010). Practicing Intersectionality in Sociological Research: A Critical Analysis of Inclusions, Interactions, and Institutions in the Study of Inequalities*. //Sociological Theory//, //28//(2), 129–149. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2010.01370.x

Yu, L. (2011). The divided views of the information and digital divides: A call for integrative theories of information inequality. //Journal of Information Science//, //37//(6), 660–679. doi:10.1177/0165551511426246

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